Susidomėjusiems Reklamų sociolingvistikos tyrimais rekomenduojame skaityti
Journal of Advertising research
Anca Cristina Micu and Joseph T. Plummer, Vol. 50, No. 2, 2010, pp.137—153.
Emotional
responses are complex and should be measured against a
variety of metrics. Five advertising research
companies
spanning three physiological (GSR, HRT, and facial EMG), one
symbolic (ZMET), and three self-report (verbal, visual, and
moment-to-moment) measures tested the effectiveness of the
same four television commercials. This study compared and
contrasted the physiological, symbolic, and self-report
measure
results and found they should be used in combination, depending on the information needed. Traces from the physiological measures indicate the peaks of lower-order emotions. Self-report measures capture conscious emotional reactions using preset labels. Symbolic measures provide a mental map of the brand. The authors suggest brand managers could use different criteria in setting the advertising objectives and reorient the creative briefing process. Emotional experiences are co-created, and advertising planning should link the “brand story” with a consumer’s “life story.”
A Netnographic Exploration: Listening to Online Consumer Conversations
Rama K. Jayanti, Vol. 50, No. 2, 2010, pp.181—196.
Consumer conversations on a health-related electronic bulletin board are analyzed to investigate two key processes instrumental to creativity: analogical reasoning and reflective reframing. A netnographic analysis of these two creative strategies revealed two consistent themes of physician partnership and personal outcomes. To study the implications of these two themes for hospital communications, a content analysis of 40 comprehensive cancer-center Web sites was conducted. The results demonstrate a gap: although patients in online conversations emphasize physician partnership and personal outcomes, the majority of hospital communications emphasize reputation, expertise, and compassion. Strategic recommendations grounded in consumer conversations conclude the article.
Lea M Wakolbinger, Michaela Denk, and Klaus Oberecker , Vol. 49, No. 3, September 2009, pp.360—372
Cross-media advertising has received wide attention from practitioners over the last years, but there are only few experimental studies that analyze the effectiveness of integrating online and print advertising. Contributing to this relevant research field, this article analyzes advertising effectiveness of print and online media as well as the impact of combining these two media forms on overall advertising effectiveness. Our study supports existing findings that print and online advertising feature the same advertising effectiveness. Our experimental data, however, also indicate advantages of cross-media advertising.
Digital Anthropology: How Ethnography Can Improve Online Research
Ray Pettit, Vol. 50, No. 3, 2010, pp.240—242.
As the concept of "listening to" and "understanding" people in their "natural" environment occupies a larger portion of marketing and advertising research thinking, it seems appropriate that techniques and methods from anthropology would blossom. Robert V. Kozinets captures a powerful facet of this in "Netnography: Doing Ethnographic Research Online". In this article, the Journal of Advertising Research talks with Professor Kozinets about the development of Netnography theory and its practice in digital marketing.
Multi-Platform Messaging: The Medium Matters
Theresa Treutler, Brian Levine and Carl D. Marci, Vol. 50, No. 3, 2010, pp.243—249.
Advances in technology and a growing number of media platforms enable people to vary their media consumption experience more than ever before. Each new platform also offers marketers more messaging outlets and new gateways to the eyes, ears, and emotions of their target consumer. The Television Bureau of Canada (TVB) partnered with Innerscope Research, Inc. to use biometric research techniques combined with eye-tracking data to compare the unconscious emotional responses prompted by ads placed in the television environment with ads from the same brands placed in newspaper, radio, and online platforms. The goal of this study was to gain a deeper understanding of how different media effectively communicate advertising messaging with the goal of understanding such questions as, how can marketers identify which platform provides advertising messages with the most impact on the target consumer? The study results detail the strengths of each platform to help enable marketers to create more strategic campaigns across the media mix. To ensure the validity of the results, this multi-platform study was further audited by the Canadian Advertising Research Foundation to ensure the integrity of the methodologies used and the neutrality of the study design, execution, and interpretation of the results.
A Tale of Two Social Contexts: Race-Specific Testimonials on Commercial Web Sites
Troy Elias and Osei Appiah, Vol. 50, No. 3, 2010, pp.250—264.
This two-part study examines the effects of race-specific testimonials on both Black and White consumers and on Black majority and Black minority consumers. Study I demonstrates that Black Internet surfers respond more favorably to testimonial ads that utilize Black character testimonials than they do to testimonials that use White characters. White Internet surfers responded no differently to testimonials based on the race of the product presenter. Study I also indicates that Black and White Web surfers seem to have a slight preference for moderately vivid testimonials versus highly vivid testimonials. Study II indicates that Blacks who represented a numeric minority in their immediate social environment showed more favorability toward ads that use Black characters than Blacks who resided in a social environment wherein they comprised a numeric majority.
Kathleen Kelly, Maria Leonora G. Comello, Linda R. Stanley and Gabriel R. Gonzalez, Vol. 50, No. 3, 2010, pp.265—278.
This article reports on an experiment conducted that tested anti-tobacco advertising strategies aimed at a bicultural Mexican-American youth audience. The direct effects of three advertising themes (negative health consequences, social norms against smoking, and tobacco industry manipulation) and three language executions (English, Spanish, and “Spanglish”) on adolescent Hispanics’ evaluations of the advertisements were examined using a multilevel modeling approach. Additionally, participant-level measures for acculturation and tobacco-related attitudes and behaviors as potential moderators were included. Although all the tested advertisements were viewed favorably, results suggest that a negative health theme may be most effective in a community-wide campaign because it evokes the least amount of counter-arguing among smokers while, at the same time, eliciting positive evaluations from nonsmokers. Results also support the use of either Spanglish or English in the design of anti-tobacco advertising aimed at Mexican-American youths. The study contributes to practical knowledge by examining these factors in stimuli with a high level of ecological validity.
Enrique P. Becerra and Pradeep K. Korgaonkar, Vol. 50, No. 3, 2010, pp.279—291.
Hispanic Americans' purchasing power and Internet usage are on the rise, but published research on the influence of Web advertising on their purchase intentions online is still scarce. This study explores Hispanic-American attitudes toward banner, e-mail, pop-up advertising, and purchase intentions and accounts for ethnic identification (i.e., strength of association to the Hispanic culture) and selected demographics. The results vary among the three types of online advertising and indicate that attitudes toward online advertising and purchase intentions online are significantly related to ethnic identification… but not in the expected direction. The major findings and their implications are discussed.
How Effective is Creativity? Emotive Content in TV Advertising Does Not Increase Attention
Robert G. Heath, Agnes C. Nairn and Paul A. Bottomley, Vol. 49, No. 4, December 2009, pp.450—463.
Emotive creativity is generally believed to facilitate communication by increasing attention. However, during relaxed TV viewing, psychology suggests we may pay less not more attention to emotive ads. An experiment conducted in a realistic viewing environment found that ads that were high in emotive content correlated with a 20 percent lower level of attention and that attention toward these ads was unlikely to decline on repeat viewing. This supports the idea that TV advertising is not systematically processed but is automatically processed in response to the stimuli presented. We speculate that emotive creativity may benefit brand TV advertising by lowering attention and inhibiting counter-argument.
Too Much Information: Does the Internet Dig Too Deep?
Dinaz Kachhi and Michael W. Link, Vol. 49, No. 1, Mar 2009, pp.74—81.
A lot of attention has been focused on the array of digital measurement tools; relatively less consideration has been given to people’s acceptance of these devices. There is no limitation in developing sophisticated measurement tools. However, the challenge is overcoming the perception of these devices as a privacy threat. Therefore, a set of questions was designed to determine people’s attitudes and behaviors toward privacy issues linked to participation in television and internet measurement by recruiting 2,900 respondents using the Intercept methodology. The data analysis indicated distinct demographic patterns of attitudes and behaviors toward privacy issues. These findings are discussed in terms of determining strategies to improve participation in research efforts.
Aysen Bakir, Vol. 49, No. 1, Mar 2009, pp.93—103.
Disclaimers in advertisements might strongly influence how advertising is produced and presented to the public. Examining how marketers use such disclaimers in different countries is an important part of understanding how advertising reaches out to children. To date, studies of disclaimers with respect to children have only focused on U.S. advertising. This study examines differences in how disclaimers are used in both Turkish and U.S. children’s television commercials.
Creating New Brand Names: Effects of Relevance, Connotation, and Pronunciation
Yeqing Bao, Alan T. Shao, and Drew Rivers, Vol. 48, No. 1, Mar 2008, pp.148—162.
Field research and a laboratory study were conducted to empirically examine the effects of brand relevance, connotation, and pronunciation on consumers' preferences for new brand names. The context theory of memory retrieval and the simplicity principle provided the foundation for our research hypotheses. In both cases, study results supported the main effects of relevance, connotation, and pronunciation of brand names on consumers' brand preference. In addition, results showed that the contribution of connotation will be attenuated if the brand name is difficult to pronounce.
The Sexual Objectification of Women in Advertising: A Contemporary Cultural Perspective
Amanda Zimmerman and John Dahlberg, Vol. 48, No. 1, Mar 2008, pp.71—79.
This study measures attitudes of young women to sexually objectified advertising. A survey combining elements of two previous studies (Ford, LaTour, and Lundstrom, 1991; Mittal and Lassar, 2000) was administered to 94 female undergraduates. Results show significant (p > 0.001) changes in attitudes of young, educated women. Respondents agreed females were portrayed as sex objects in advertisements, but were less offended by these portrayals than female respondents in 1991. Results also show females' attitudes toward the advertisement have little effect on purchase intention, a highly significant change from attitudes of women in 1991.
How Products and Advertising Offend Consumers
Fred K. Beard, Vol. 48, No. 1, Mar 2008, pp.13—21.
A growing research literature suggests when and why audiences will be offended by advertisements. The content analysis reported in this article tests hypotheses derived from the literature using actual consumer complaints about advertisements delivered via the mass media. Findings supported four of the study's five hypotheses, supporting conclusions that (1) audience members are more likely to be offended by offensive themes than the products, services, or ideas advertised; (2) some themes are predictably more offensive than others; and (3) advertisements delivered via more intrusive media are offensive more often than those delivered via other media. Implications of the study's findings regarding widespread audience offense are discussed.
Why Do Advertisers Use Puns? A Linguistic Perspective
Elmira Djararova, Vol. 48, No. 2, June 2008, pp.267—275.
This article explores the role and interpretation processes of puns in print advertising. The function of punning (wordplay) in advertising varies from double meanings to humorous effects. Textual analysis based on a pragmatic approach (branch of linguistics) demonstrates how advertisements with the use of punning can be interpreted within the context. A combination of qualitative content analysis and pragmatics reveals that the ambiguous meanings of puns can be interpreted by the audience according to their background and inferential knowledge. This article contributes to the theoretical knowledge of advertising and its creativity by applying the linguistic approach to this research area. This study attempts to show how texts can reveal some interesting and important issues within advertising communication, which in its turn can generate some further discussions.
Exploring the Audience’s Role: A Decoding Model for the 21st Century
Alexandra J. Kenyon, Anthony Parsons and Emma H. Wood, Vol. 48, No. 2, June 2008, pp.276—286.
This article uses empirical research, with young (aged 16–21) advertising audiences, to build upon existing communication theory in a number of ways. First, it summarizes meaning-based models that have developed over time by increasing the importance of the audience’s role. Second, it advances communication theory by introducing a new meaning-based model appropriate to the 21st century audience. The model is constructed from the theoretical concepts of personal self, social circle, popular culture, and inherited culture. The model provides a framework that industry practitioners and academic scholars can use to consider how anterior texts help young people decode meaning from advertisements.
Children’s Responses to Gender-Role Stereotyped Advertisements
Aysen Bakir, Jeffrey G. Blodgett and Gregory M. Rose, Vol. 48, No. 2, June 2008, pp.255—266.
Research indicates that adult’s gender-role perceptions can influence their responses toward different types of advertising appeals; however, it is not known whether the same is true for young children. Given that children’s gender-role stereotypes vary across both age and gender, it is possible that their responses toward different types of advertisements might also vary. Accordingly, this study examines whether preadolescent boys and girls differ in their attitudes toward advertisements that incorporate agentic or communal gender-role attributes. The results are managerially relevant. The findings suggest that marketers can target young boys and girls with a common set of advertisements. However, advertisements should convey agentic themes when targeted toward older preadolescent girls, and communal themes when targeted toward younger preadolescent girls. Considering that children represent a large and growing consumer segment this issue deserves greater attention.
Gillain K. Oakenfull, Michael S. McCarthy and Timothy B. Greenlee, Vol. 48, No. 2, June 2008, pp.191—198.
Although marketers generally consider homosexuals to be a desirable market segment, they are not targeted using mainstream media because it is expected that heterosexuals will react negatively to homosexual advertising messages. However, this study found that consumers’ response to heterosexual or homosexual advertising content was affected by the type of homosexual imagery used in the advertisement and the gender and sexual orientation of the consumer viewing the advertisement. The findings indicate that marketers advertising to homosexual consumers using the mainstream media should use advertising incorporating gay and lesbian subcultural symbolism whenever possible.
Advertising Creativity Matters
Micael Dahlen, Fredrik Törn and Sara Rosengren, Vol. 48, No. 3, Sept 2008, pp.392—403.
Could “wasteful” advertising creativity that does not add to the functionality of the advertisement (i.e., it neither enhances recall and liking of the advertising, nor increases comprehension and persuasiveness of the communicated message) be useful? An experimental study shows that it can. By signaling greater effort on behalf of the advertiser and a greater ability of the brand, advertising creativity enhances both brand interest and perceived brand quality. The effects are mediated by consumer-perceived creativity, suggesting that consumers are important judges of creativity. Bringing advertising creativity into new light, the results provide implications for the development, measurement, and positioning of creative advertising.
Attributes of Likeable Television Commercials in Asia
Kim-Shyan Fam, Vol. 48, No. 3, Sept 2008, pp.418—432.
Many advertisers aim to present advertisements that will at least be liked by those who see them, as it has been suggested that advertising likeability can lead to advertising recall, favorable brand attitudes, and possibly purchase intention. This study investigates consumer attitudes in Asia toward television commercials by determining attributes that are liked and disliked in advertisements. Data were obtained from telephone interviews conducted in Hong Kong, Shanghai, Jakarta, Bangkok, and Mumbai, each country with distinct cultural and religious beliefs. The results show that “Entertaining” is the most liked attribute across the five cities. However, the importance of other likeable attributes varied, and the study concludes by providing several explanations to the variations in an Asian context.
Jon Reast, Dayananda Palihawadana and Haseeb Shabbir, Vol. 48, No. 3, Sept 2008, pp.450—464.
This article reports the findings of two surveys examining U.K. physician and consumer attitudes to the introduction of direct to consumer advertising (DTCA), and its likely impact, if implemented, in the strategically important U.K. prescription drug market. The findings, in general, suggest that neither physicians nor consumers are positively disposed to the advertising of prescriptions drugs, although significant differences in attitudes toward such policies emerged between the two groups based upon “ethics and approval levels,” “ethics-related impacts,” and the “impact of unbranded disease awareness campaigns.” The findings for consumers and physicians do not at present support the extension of DTCA in the United Kingdom, but are supportive of a continuation of unbranded “disease awareness” campaigns. Guidance for practitioners within the established U.S. DTCA marketplace is also provided.
Evaluating Empirical Research into Music in Advertising: A Congruity Perspective
Steve Oakes, Vol. 47, No. 1, Mar 2007, pp.38—50.
This research provides a review and analysis of empirical studies focusing upon cognitive and affective response to music in advertising. It draws together an apparently disparate literature to reach conclusions that will be valuable to advertising practitioners and academics. Findings are categorized by introducing 10 original definitions of music/advertising congruity (score, mood, repetition, association, valence, semantic, genre, image, tempo, and timbre). This highlights the emergence of a coherent pattern in which increased music/advertising congruity contributes synergistically to communications effectiveness by enhancing purchase intent, brand attitude, recall facilitation, and affective response. However, additional evidence indicates that future research should assess the benefits of using more artfully incongruous musical stimuli.
The Honey, the Bear, and the Violin: The Russian Voices of Israeli Advertising
Nelly Elias and Leah Greenspan, Vol. 47, No. 1, Mar 2007, pp.113—123.
Despite the growing economic significance of immigrant consumers in most Western societies, there is no known study that has empirically investigated the effectiveness of advertising campaigns, which purposely addresses the immigrants’ special needs, values, and cultural characteristics. Hence, the present study aims to fill this gap through examination of the effectiveness of different advertising and marketing campaigns specifically designed to attract immigrant consumers, in the case of immigrants from the Former Soviet Union in Israel. In this way, the research contributes to a better understanding of targeted advertising specifically designed to meet immigrants’ cultural needs and assists marketers and advertisers who aim to target immigrant communities in other national contexts.
William Havlena, Robert Cardarelli and Michelle de Montigny, Vol. 47, No. 3, Sept 2007, pp.215—221.
This article describes an approach to measuring frequency of exposure to all media at the individual level and presents a case study illustration based on a cross-platform TV, print, and online campaign for a consumer packaged good for which advertising had begun several weeks prior to data collection. Using the respondent-level frequency approach, we address the contribution of different media to marketing objectives in circumstances where the campaign has already started and for very well-established brands with high levels of awareness. Knowing respondent-level frequencies also allows us to understand if media synergy effects are truly synergistic or the result of achieving higher frequency levels among people who have been exposed to multiple media.
by Tali Te’eni-Harari, Shlomo I. Lampert and Sam Lehman-Wilzig, Vol. 47, No. 3, Sept 2007, pp.326—340.
The purpose of this study was to test whether Petty and Cacioppo’s Elaboration Likelihood Model is relevant to young people. An earlier central study on adults was replicated, through 330 in-depth interviews among three age groups (4–7, 8–11, 12–15). The findings: young people do not use either the central or peripheral route for changing attitudes as in the original adult studies. Indeed, in all three age groups, the young people’s attitudes were similar in both high and low involvement. We offer explanations for these surprising findings.
Rick T. Wilson and Brian D. Till, Vol. 47, No. 3, Sept 2007, pp.270—282.
Using a large-scale database, we present, test, and refine a model for direct-to-consumer (DTC) advertising effectiveness via structural equation modeling. Results suggest that consumers who are greatly involved in their healthcare and possess positive attitudes toward DTC advertising appear to be more likely to contact a doctor about the prescription drug after viewing a DTC advertisement. While individuals that are poor in health and/or hold more favorable attitudes toward the healthcare system do appear to respond to DTC advertising, the effect is quite small. The results of this study provide a comprehensive overview of DTC advertising’s effect on behavior.
Ted Smith, James R. Coyle, Elizabeth Lightfoot and Amy Scott, Vol. 47, No. 4, Dec 2007, pp.387—397.
In today’s fragmented media landscape, generating positive word of mouth (WOM) among consumers has become an important tool for marketers. Marketers are challenged with identifying influential individuals in social networks and connecting with them in ways that encourage WOM message movement. In this article, we explore the nature of social networks, their role in influence, and the characteristics of the most influential individuals. We also examine the characteristics of viral marketing messages. Our findings contradict the commonly accepted notion that WOM influence comes from an elite, highly-connected few. Rather our research suggests that most people are moderately connected and are as willing as the highly connected to share marketing messages with others. Also, we find that influence is motivated by our basic human need to be helpful by giving advice, and that people share a common enjoyment in seeking out valuable information. The implications of these findings for marketers are discussed.
Word-of-Mouth Research: Principles and Applications
Dee T.
Allsop, Bryce R. Bassett and James A. Hoskins, Vol. 47, No.
4, Dec 2007, pp.398—411.
Word of mouth (WOM) is an important component of a complex
and dynamic marketplace environment, and as such, WOM
research is best undertaken as part of a holistic research
program. Five principles describing the operation of WOM are
discussed, supported by data, and examples drawn from recent
research studies. Complexity science modeling is introduced
as an effective method for simulating the real-world
operation of WOM in a given market category and identifying
ways in which marketers can influence it to their advantage.
Key business issues where WOM research can inform decision
making are listed.
Peyton R. Mason and Boyd H. Davis, Vol. 47, No. 4, Dec 2007, pp.496—506.
Advertisers, marketers, and researchers all wrestle with finding the personal human presence in text-based online communication. Social features are present, if subtle. Users of online research must work to identify when and how unseen writers are or are not strongly committed to what they have just written, and must work even harder to keep from reading themselves and their own biases into the text being analyzed. Our discussion illustrates how stance-shift analysis, as a type of quantitative content analysis, maximizes understanding of online communication through its identification of key language patterns that highlight consumer evaluation, attitudes, and attribution of behaviors or opinions.
How to Capture the Heart? Reviewing 20 Years of Emotion Measurement in Advertising
Karolien Poels and Siegfried Dewitte, Vol. 46, No. 1, Mar 2006, pp.18—37.
In the latest decades, emotions have become an important research topic in all behavioral sciences, and not the least in advertising. Yet, advertising literature on how to measure emotions is not straightforward. The major aim of this article is to give an update on the different methods used for measuring emotions in advertising and to discuss their validity and applicability. We further draw conclusions on the relation between emotions and traditional measures of advertising effectiveness. We finally formulate recommendations on the use of the different methods and make suggestions for future research.
Persuasive Talk: Is It What You Say or How You Say It?
Henry C Boyd III, Vol. 46, No. 1, Mar 2006, pp.84—92.
This article introduces a new framework for copy testing. It reveals how the quality of advertising-specific elements (as perceived by the viewer) function to trigger persuasion. Building on McGuire’s general theory of personality and persuasion, the proposed model suggests that delivery quality engenders emotional response, whereas dialogue quality elicits attitudinal and behavioral response. In general, preliminary findings support the proposed model.
Gwen Ishmael and Jerry W Thomas, Vol. 46, No. 3, Sept 2006, pp.274—278.
It has been said “a picture is worth a thousand words,” which suggests that “seeing” reveals things that words alone cannot describe. Online ethnography offers an economical and practical way for researchers not only to capture the words respondents use, but to “see” into their worlds as well. This article outlines the advantages of online ethnography over more traditional approaches and gives an overview of how such projects work. Additionally, we provide an example of an online ethnography project, including study methodology and a respondent’s comments and pictures. Finally, we discuss the detailed analysis that allows researchers to reach sound conclusions and make insightful marketing recommendations.
Rosemary Polegato and Rune Bjerke, Vol. 46, No. 3, Sept 2006, pp.263—273.
This cross-cultural study explored the link between value associations and liking of a company and its advertising, using Benetton as a case in point. Through a self-completion questionnaire, respondents in Oslo, Kiel, and Bologna identified their personal values and the values they perceived in Benetton as a company, its advertising in general, and three Benetton print advertisements. They also reported on the extent to which they liked Benetton and its advertising. The empirical findings were illuminated further through an ethnographic exploration of how the respondents viewed the relationship between their personal values and their perception of brands. A clear directional match was found between the degree of value congruence and liking of Benetton and its advertising.
Cultural Masculinity/Femininity Influences on Advertising Appeals
Chingching Chang, Vol. 46, No. 3, Sept 2006, pp.315—323.
This study explored the question of whether masculinity/femininity at the cultural level can influence responses to advertisements employing image and utilitarian appeals, presumably through its effect on individual-level self-construals with regard to masculinity/femininity. An experiment showed that participants from the United States, considered to be a predominantly “masculine” culture, liked the utilitarian appeal advertisement better and rated it more believable than the image appeal advertisement. In addition, they liked the image appeal advertisement more and found it more believable when it was preceded by a utilitarian appeal advertisement than when it came first. In contrast, participants from Taiwan, considered a predominantly “androgynous” culture, responded equally well to both advertising appeal types, and presentation order did not influence their evaluations. Ethnographic interviews were included to provide emic perspectives from consumers, depicting the subjective significance of experiences for consumers in both cultures. Cultural masculinity/femininity appears to be an important factor to consider when formulating advertising appeals.
The Universality of Values: Implications for Global Advertising Strategy
Simeon Chow and Sarit Amir, Vol. 46, No. 3, Sept 2006, pp.301—314.
General values have been increasingly used as a basis for market segmentation. While the content and structure of values have been extensively studied, the relationship between a values structure and implications for segmentation as well as brand appeal and media consumption has not been analyzed as thoroughly. The objectives of this research is to fill in the gap by: (1) demonstrating that there exists a universal value structure of six types; (2) identifying the segment typology by country and assessing similarities among clusters of countries and differences between countries; and (3) examining the relationship between segment typology and brand appeal and media consumption.
Disabled Consumers: The Use of the Internet and Attitudes toward Web Advertising
John Burnett, Vol. 46, No. 3, Sept 2006, pp.324—338.
This article introduces a relatively unknown and underappreciated market segment to the realm of web advertising—the disabled consumer. A study is reported whereby a sample of disabled consumers are compared with a nondisabled sample in respect to attitudes toward web advertising, use of the internet, and desired features found on websites. In addition, an ethnographic study was conducted that confirmed and enhanced the findings from the survey. The results show significant differences between the two groups. Implications for web advertisers are discussed.
Older Consumer Responses to Marketing Stimuli: The Power of Subjective Age
George P Moschis and Anil Mathur, Vol. 46, No. 3, Sept 2006, pp.339—346.
Subjective age has been an important construct in studies of older consumers. The present study builds upon previous research by providing theory-based consumer behavior consequences of subjective age. Using both empirical and humanistic designs, the study examines the influence of subjective age on various old age–appropriate consumer behaviors, interest in age-segmented stimuli (senior discounts), and responses to old-age stereotypes in advertisements. The study findings suggest implications for theory and practice. Directions for future research are also suggested.
Effects of Popular Music in Advertising on Attention and Memory
David Allan, Vol. 46, No. 4, Dec 2006, pp.434—444.
This study examines the effects of popular music in advertising to determine both the theoretical (the effect of popular music on the processing of advertising messages) and practical (the design of more effective advertisements using popular music) implications. An experiment is reported that tested the effects of three integrations of popular music in advertising: original lyrics, altered lyrics, and instrumentals (plus a control treatment with no music) on attention and memory. The results indicated that song vocals, either original or altered, are more effective stimuli of advertising effects than instrumentals or no popular music.
Avoiding Television Advertising: Some Explanations from Time Allocation Theory
Gary Davies and Jose I. Rojas-Mendez, Vol. 45, No. 1, Mar 2005, pp.34—48.
Time allocation theory holds that individuals allocate their discretionary time purposively, depending upon their time orientation: to the past, present, or future. We use this perspective to understand more about why individuals avoid watching TV advertisements. We test a model of avoidance where time orientation influences attitude to advertising and avoidance with survey data from two different societies. Past-oriented people see advertising as important but promoting consumption. They tend to avoid advertising more than present-oriented people who see advertising as complimenting their concern to 'live for today.' Future-oriented people see advertising as important in planning purchases and are less likely to avoid it.
A Demographic and Psychographic Profile of Heavy Internet Users and Users by Type of Internet Usage
Henry Assael, Vol. 45, No. 1, Mar 2005, pp.93—123.
With the penetration rate of the web approaching 70 percent, profiles of general web usage are less important. Web marketers must begin to focus on the profile of heavy web users and users by type of web usage. This article develops a demographic and lifestyle profile of heavy web users (those using the web for 20 hours a week or more) based on a survey of over 5,000 respondents. It also identifies six key web usage categories—Web Generalists, Downloaders, Self-Improvers, Entertainment Seekers, Stock Traders, and Socializers—and develops a profile of each. This may be the first study providing a detailed demographic and lifestyle description of both heavy users and web usage types. The profiles should be useful to web marketers for selecting media and setting the tone of their marketing effort in targeting these groups.
Carrie La Ferle and Wei-Na Lee, Vol. 45, No. 1, Mar 2005, pp.140—153.
With the size of ethnic minority groups expanding and their disposable income increasing, the consumption landscape and media environment are constantly evolving. It is important for advertisers to understand how ethnic minority group members feel about being targeted by current multicultural marketing communication practices and if English language media for the general market are still a good way to reach these consumers. Past research has often employed a content analysis technique to gauge instances of ethnic minority representation in advertising. However, a void exists in the literature with respect to examining how ethnic minorities actually feel about tactics and messages directed at them. Therefore a cross-cultural survey of adults in three ethnic groups in the United States was carried out to examine these attitudes and also to assess current media use patterns. The results suggest that English broadcast media are still a good way to reach people across the various groups. The study further reveals that attitudes toward the frequency and accuracy of these groups as portrayed in advertisements are somewhat different from the negative viewpoints historically found in the literature. In fact, the results suggest that today's advertisements are not considered inadequate or inaccurate by many and that efforts toward targeting ethnic minorities are potentially welcomed. However, a bi-modal distribution across several representation issues indicates that advertisers must still be cautious in the minds of some ethnic minority consumers. Implications for advertisers and media planners are discussed as well as suggestions for future research.
The impact of trademarks and advertisement size on Yellow Page call rates
Avery M. Abernethy and David N. Laband, Vol. 44, No. 1, March 2004, pp.119—125.
Split book yellow page tests randomly distribute different versions of the test advertisement in the same market at the same point in time allowing direct assessment of the customer pulling power of different sizes or types of yellow pages advertisements. Using the results from 78 split book tests, we find that including trademarks in small in-column yellow page advertisements can have a very strong influence on call rates. Partially confirming previous work, we also find that larger advertisements do generate more calls than smaller advertisements. However, the increase in call rates is not a straight line relationship.
Internet and Magazine Advertising: Integrated Partnerships or Not?
Richard Alan Nelson and Dr Ali Kanso, Vol. 44, No. 4, Dec 2004, pp.317—326.
This study examines the mixed-media strategy of advertising online and publicizing the web location in magazine advertisements. It also analyzes the extent of integration between websites and print advertisements in six major U.S. magazines. In creating an online commercial site, it is important to recognize that the internet requires different marketing and advertising practices than those used in traditional media. Mixed-media advertising necessitates coordinated efforts between those managing the website and those designing advertisements for other media. The findings suggest that marketers are not exploiting all possible benefits of their websites by not adequately integrating print and online advertising efforts.
Journal of Consumer Research
(2009—2010)
Narrative and Persuasion in Fashion Advertising
Semiotic Structure and the Legitimation of Consumption Practices: The Case of Casino Gambling
How do changes in public discourse and regulatory structure affect the acceptance of a consumption practice? Previous research on legitimacy in consumer behavior has focused on the consumer reception of legitimizing discourse rather than on the historical process of legitimation itself. This study examines the influence of changes in the institutional environment over time on the meaning structures that influence consumer perception and practice. To study legitimation as a historical process, a discourse analysis of newspaper articles about casino gambling from 1980–2007 was conducted. Results show that the regulatory approval of gambling is accompanied by a shift in the semantic categories used to discuss casinos and that journalists play a role in shaping these categories. Further, journalists shape the meaning of a consumption practice in three ways: through selection, validation, and realization. Interpreted through the lens of institutional theory, these findings suggest that studies of legitimation should consider changes in public discourse and legal regulation in addition to consumer perceptions of legitimacy.
Language Abstraction in Word of Mouth
This research examines the language that consumers use in word of mouth. For both positive and negative product experiences, we demonstrate that consumers use more abstract terms when they describe experiences that are in line with the valence of their product attitude. This effect cannot be explained by differences in valence between abstract and concrete language. On the receiver side, abstract language in positive word of mouth leads to (1) the inference that the sender has a more favorable product attitude and (2) a higher buying intention for the product under consideration. The reverse is found for negative word of mouth.
Puffery in Advertisements: The Effects of Media Context, Communication Norms, and Consumer Knowledge
Ads often contain puffery—product descriptions that purport to be important but actually provide little if any meaningful information. Consumers’ reactions to these descriptions depend on whether they perceive themselves to be more or less knowledgeable about the product than others whom the ad is specifically intended to influence. When an ad appears in a professional magazine that is read primarily by experts in the product domain, puffery generally increases the ad’s effectiveness. This is also true when the ad appears in a popular magazine but readers perceive themselves to know less about the product than consumers at large. If readers believe they know as much as or more than general consumers, however, puffery decreases the ad’s effectiveness. In addition, the media context in which an ad is encountered has a direct effect on judgments by consumers who perceive themselves to have little knowledge about the type of product being advertised.
Talking to Ourselves: A Dialogical Exploration of Consumption Experiences
This article introduces the dialogical nature of self to study consumers’ inner dialogs in order to understand consumers’ marketplace decisions and conflicts. The authors explore the meaning of consumption at multiple self levels and dialogical relationships to manage differences. The study uses mixed methods including in-depth interviews, multidimensional scaling, cluster analysis, and metaphors to distill important voices in their informants. They find that the consumption stories vary across self levels. The meta-self level reflects a dispassionate representation of the primary I-positions in consumers and does not explain what the consumers experience at the time of actual consumption. An examination of inconsistent consumption preferences at the level of I-positions reveals that dialogical relationships labeled compartmentalization, compassion, negotiation, and coalition can avoid and manage conflicts, while relationships involving opposition and domination reflect unresolved conflicts. Suggestions to use the dialogical self model for addressing issues of negative selves, addictions, and domination in future research are provided.
The Long and Short of It: Why Are Stocks with Shorter Runs Preferred?
This article examines how consumers process graphical financial information to estimate risk. We propose that consumers sample the local maxima and minima of a graph to infer the variation around a trend line, which is used to estimate risk. The local maxima and minima are more extreme the higher the run length of the stocks (the consecutive number of upward or downward movements of a price series with identical mean, variance, skewness, and kurtosis). Three experiments show that this leads to stocks with higher run lengths being perceived as riskier: the run‐length effect. Importantly, the run‐length effect is greater for investors who are more educated, are employed full time, trade more frequently, have had longer experience trading, and trade a wider range of financial instruments. Implications for the communication of financial products, public policy, and consumer welfare are discussed, as are theoretical implications for the processing of visual and financial information and behavioral finance.
The Effects of Thin and Heavy Media Images on Overweight and Underweight Consumers: Social Comparison Processes and Behavioral Implications
This study examines how advertisements containing thin or heavy models influence the self-esteem of overweight, normal, and underweight consumers. Previous research has mainly examined the influences of variations of the comparison standard on self-evaluative outcomes, whereas we examine how the relative position of the self on the comparison dimension may moderate these effects. Three studies manipulated the size (thin vs. heavy) and extremity of the size (moderate vs. extreme) of advertising models and exposed these images to individuals differing in Body Mass Index (BMI) levels. Our findings indicate that social comparison processes and subsequent self-evaluative and behavioral outcomes are different for individuals differing in their BMI.
Nationalism and Ideology in an Anticonsumption Movement
In this research we examine the role of the nationalist ideology of swadeshi in a contemporary anticonsumption movement and show that its deployment is linked to the experiences of colonialism, modernity, and globalization in India. Specifically, we offer a postcolonial understanding of reflexivity and nationalism in an anticonsumption movement opposing Coca-Cola in India. This helps us offer an interpretation of this consumer movement involving spatial politics, temporal heterogeneity, appropriation of existing ideology, the use of consumption in ideology, and attempts to bring together a disparate set of actors in the movement.
The Influence of Categorical Attributes on Choice Context Effects
This article documents the influence of categorical attributes on choice context effects. We demonstrate that the asymmetric dominance effect is attenuated by the introduction of a unique categorical feature in the competing option, while the tendency to prefer a middle option is not significantly affected. Our findings indicate that the presence of an important/salient categorical attribute facilitates “editing out” of the asymmetrically dominated option, weakening the asymmetric dominance effect. Further, when initial category-based elimination is enforced, the asymmetric dominance effect and the tendency to prefer a middle option are both mitigated.
Coming to a Restaurant Near You? Potential Consumer Responses to Nutrition Information Disclosure on Menus
Is the increase in away-from-home food consumption partially responsible for the rising prevalence of overweight consumers? Some believe that this may be the case since restaurants are not required to make easily accessible nutrition information available at the point of purchase. A field study, experiment, and consumer food diaries were used to explore how nutrition information disclosure on menus may influence consumers’ product evaluations and consumption behaviors. In the context of away-from-home food consumption, we find that product claims and consumer motivation moderate the effects of nutrition information provision. Consumer health and welfare implications of our findings are discussed.
The Impact of Accessible Identities on the Evaluation of Global versus Local Products
Through three studies, we investigated the impact of consumers’ global versus local identities on the evaluation of global products (products with the same specifications and packaging for consumers from around the world) versus local products (products with specifications and packaging tailored for local markets). The results show that consumers with an accessible global identity prefer a global (more than a local) product and consumers with an accessible local identity prefer a local (more than a global) product. Of note, this effect was reversed, either by an explicit instruction about accessible identities being nondiagnostic (study 1) or implicitly by inducing a differentiative (vs. integrative) processing mode (study 2).
In Search of Homo Economicus: Cognitive Noise and the Role of Emotion in Preference Consistency
Understanding the role of emotion in forming preferences is critical in helping firms choose effective marketing strategies and consumers make appropriate consumption decisions. In five experiments, participants made a set of binary product choices under conditions designed to induce different degrees of emotional decision processing. The results consistently indicate that greater reliance on emotional reactions during decision making is associated with greater preference consistency and less cognitive noise. Additionally, the results of a meta-analytical study based on data from all five experiments further show that products that elicit a stronger emotional response are more likely to yield consistent preferences.
Donation Behavior toward In-Groups and Out-Groups: The Role of Gender and Moral Identity
We investigate how two important social identities—gender identity and moral identity—result in differential donations to in-groups and out-groups. Results from three studies indicate that moral identity importance tends to increase donations to out-groups (Iraq, Indonesia) and not to in-groups (London, New Orleans). However, this occurs only for consumers with a feminine gender identity. For consumers with a masculine gender identity, moral identity importance increases donations to the in-group but not the out-group. Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) mediates the moderating role of gender identity on the effect of moral identity on in-group and out-group donations.
Sex in Advertising: Gender Differences and the Role of Relationship Commitment
This study draws on differences between men and women’s attitudes about sex, either as an end in itself (men) or as inextricably linked to relationship commitment (women) to understand attitudes toward the gratuitous use of sex in advertising. In line with predictions, four experiments showed that women’s spontaneous dislike of sexual ads softened when the ad could be interpreted in terms of commitment-related resources being offered by men to women. In contrast, men’s positive attitudes toward sexual ads were relatively unaffected by the salience of relationship commitment cues. These results not only offer insights into consumer reactions to sexual advertising but also inform theories on how men and women conceptualize sexual behaviors and relationships.
The Contrasting Effects of Culture on Consumer Tolerance: Interpersonal Face and Impersonal Fate
This research highlights two cultural tendencies—concern for face and belief in fate—that are characteristic of Asian (vs. Western) consumers. In three cross-cultural studies on service failures, we show that these cultural tendencies have contrasting effects on consumer tolerance, such that Asian (vs. Western) consumers are more dissatisfied with social failures but less dissatisfied with nonsocial failures. We further demonstrate that these contrasting effects of culture are sensitive to pertinent contextual factors such as the presence of other consumers or a fate-suggestive brand name. Overall, our research evinces the multidimensionality of cultural influence and points to the need for a sharper focus in conceptualizing cross-cultural consumer behavior.
The Distinct Influence of Cognitive Busyness and Need for Closure on Cultural Differences in Socially Desirable Responding
Research suggests that cognitive busyness and need for closure have similar effects on a host of consumer phenomena, leading some researchers to treat the two variables as substitutes. We propose that cognitive busyness and need for closure have distinct roots and can have different effects. We examine their distinction in the context of cultural differences in the two types of socially desirable responding—impression management and self-deceptive enhancement. Our findings indicate that high (vs. low) cognitive busyness weakens the relationship between culture and impression management, but not that between culture and self-deceptive enhancement. In contrast, high (vs. low) need for closure strengthens both relationships. The article concludes with a discussion of the theoretical, methodological, and practical implications of these findings.
Bilingualism and the Emotional Intensity of Advertising Language
This research contributes to the current understanding of language effects in advertising by uncovering a previously ignored mechanism shaping consumer response to an increasingly globalized marketplace. We propose a language-specific episodic trace theory of language emotionality to explain how language influences the perceived emotionality of marketing communications. Five experiments with bilingual consumers show (1) that textual information (e.g., marketing slogans) expressed in consumers’ native language tends to be perceived as more emotional than messages expressed in their second language, (2) that this effect is not uniquely due to the activation of stereotypes associated to specific languages or to a lack of comprehension, and (3) that the effect depends on the frequency with which words have been experienced in native-versus second-language contexts.
How Inferences about Missing Attributes Decrease the Tendency to Defer Choice and Increase Purchase Probability
Most purchases involve choices among options with incomplete attribute information. In such situations, consumers often have the option not to choose any of the alternatives to avoid uncertainty. Alternatively, consumers can make inferences about the missing attributes. These inferences may occur spontaneously, or they may be strategically prompted. In five studies, it is shown that both explicitly and implicitly prompting consumers to make inferences about the missing attributes reduces the tendency to select the no-choice option and increases the likelihood of making a purchase decision. In parallel, consumers who generate spontaneous inferences are also less likely to defer their choices.
Stigma by Association in Coupon Redemption: Looking Cheap because of Others
The present research establishes that the innocuous behavior of coupon redemption is capable of eliciting stigma by association. The general finding across four studies shows that the coupon redemption behavior of one consumer results in a second non-coupon-redeeming shopper being stigmatized by association as cheap when a low as compared to a high value coupon is redeemed. More important, the research identifies a number of factors that protect a non-coupon-redeeming shopper from the undesirable experience of stigma by association, even during another shopper’s redemption of a low value coupon.
Emotional Calibration Effects on Consumer Choice
This research extends the knowledge calibration paradigm to include emotional calibration. Two studies were conducted to investigate the effects of emotional calibration on consumer decision making. Emotionally calibrated consumers made higher-quality food choices, and these effects were predictive beyond cognitive ability and cognitive calibration. In a field experiment, emotional calibration enhanced obese consumers’ decision quality by attenuating the impact of impulsive eating on caloric intake and reducing the effect of a vivid presentation of food choices. Theoretical implications are discussed for consumer emotional ability, confidence, and calibration, along with a motivation explanation for our findings. The significance of emotional calibration to future research is addressed along with a discussion of consumer well-being.
An Expanded Conceptualization and a New Measure of Compulsive Buying
Drawing on the theoretical foundation of obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorder, this article develops an expanded conceptualization and new measure of consumers’ proclivity to buy compulsively. Compulsive buying is defined as a consumer’s tendency to be preoccupied with buying that is revealed through repetitive buying and a lack of impulse control over buying. This measure includes dimensions of both obsessive-compulsive and impulse-control disorders. By measuring income-dependent items or consequences of compulsive buying separately from the compulsive-buying scale, we develop a measure that has a strong theoretical foundation, well-documented psychometric properties, and an ability to be applied to general consumer populations.
The Effects of a Different Category Context on Target Brand Evaluations
Four studies support the conclusion that the evaluation of a target brand is influenced by its presentation in the context of advertising for brands from a different category. The specific effect of context depends on the decision maker’s expertise in the target category and the accessibility of contextual information. In a base condition, experts exhibited an assimilation effect and novices a comparison contrast. Increasing the accessibility of the contextual information prompted a correction contrast effect among experts and an assimilation effect among novices. A reduction in the resources available for processing the highly accessible contextual information resulted in experts engaging in assimilation and in novices exhibiting a comparison contrast. These findings are explained in terms of an interpretation and a comparison judgment process.
Language Choice in Advertising to Bilinguals: Asymmetric Effects for Multinationals versus Local Firms
We examine the role of language choice in advertising to bilinguals in global markets. Our results reveal the existence of asymmetric language effects for multinational corporations (MNCs) versus local firms when operating in a foreign domain, such that the choice of advertising language affects advertising effectiveness for MNCs but not local companies. Also, different language formats (e.g., the local language vs. English or a mix of the two languages) are shown to vary in their advertising effectiveness for different types of products (luxuries vs. necessities). Our results indicate that language choice for advertisements is an important decision for MNCs. Also, MNCs cannot mimic local companies in their choice of advertising language.
Effects of Temporal and Social Distance on Consumer Evaluations
This article investigates how two dimensions of psychological distance (i.e., temporal distance and social distance) jointly affect consumers’ evaluations of products. Drawing on the properties of psychological distance and diminishing sensitivity to the increase in distance, we show an interaction effect of the two distance dimensions on product evaluations in two experiments. Specifically, when both dimensions are proximal, consumer evaluations are more influenced by the value associated with low-level construals than when either or both dimensions are distal, where consumer evaluations are more influenced by the value associated with high-level construals.
The Effects of Reduced Food Size and Package Size on the Consumption Behavior of Restrained and Unrestrained Eaters
This research examines the moderating role of attempted dietary restraint on the amount of food consumed from small food in small packages versus large food in large packages. Four experiments demonstrate that restrained eaters consume more calories from small food in small packages, while unrestrained eaters consume more calories from large food in a large package. For restrained eaters, overconsumption of the small food in small packages results from a lapse in self-control caused by the stress of perceiving conflicting food information: the small food in small packages is perceived as both diet food and high in calories.
The Mere Categorization Effect: How the Presence of Categories Increases Choosers’ Perceptions of Assortment Variety and Outcome Satisfaction
What is the effect of option categorization on choosers’ satisfaction? A combination of field and laboratory experiments reveals that the mere presence of categories, irrespective of their content, positively influences the satisfaction of choosers who are unfamiliar with the choice domain. This “mere categorization effect” is driven by a greater number of categories signaling greater variety among the available options, which allows for a sense of self-determination from choosing. This effect, however, is attenuated for choosers who are familiar with the choice domain, who do not rely on the presence of categories to perceive the variety available.
Will I Spend More in 12 Months or a Year? The Effect of Ease of Estimation and Confidence on Budget Estimates
Consumers’ budgets are influenced by the temporal frame used for the budget period. Budgets planned for the next month are much lower than recorded expenses, while those for the next year are closer to recorded expenses (study 1). The difficulty of estimating budgets for the next year imparts low confidence and leads to upward adjustment. When consumers’ confidence in their estimates is increased (study 2), when their natural beliefs about the relationship between cognitive ease and accuracy are reversed (study 3), or when cognitive resources are constrained (study 4), consumers no longer adjust their budgets upward for the next year.
One Individual, Two Identities: Frame Switching among Biculturals
Bicultural bilingual individuals have incorporated two cultures within themselves and speak the languages of those cultures. When cued by a particular language, these individuals activate distinct sets of culture-specific concepts, or mental frames, which include aspects of their identities. Three studies show that language-triggered frame switching (i.e., switching from one set of mental frames to another) occurs only with biculturals, not with bilinguals who are not bicultural. The studies uncover frame switching at the within-individual level, and they include both qualitative and experimental evidence. They also provide a methodology to identify the relative activation strength of specific mental frames in different languages.
The Interactive Effect of Cultural Symbols and Human Values on Taste Evaluation
We suggest that consumers assess the taste of a food or beverage by comparing the human values symbolized by the product to their human value priorities. When there is value-symbol congruency, they experience a better taste and aroma and develop a more favorable attitude and behavior intention; incongruence has the opposite effect. Participants in two taste tests were told the correct identity of a product or misinformed. Participants who endorsed the values symbolized by the product (that they thought they were tasting) evaluated the product more favorably. The implications for marketing strategy, self-congruity theory, and the assimilation effect are discussed.
The Self-Activation Effect of Advertisements: Ads Can Affect Whether and How Consumers Think about the Self
Comparing consumption with nonconsumption situations, we propose and test the self-activation effect of advertisements, which holds that attractiveness-relevant products in advertisements can increase consumer self-activation and lower consumer self-evaluation. Four experiments provide support for this effect by showing that after viewing advertised beauty-enhancing products, but not advertised problem-solving products, thoughts about the self are more salient and self-evaluations are lower, compared with viewing the same products outside of an advertisement context. The findings hold for different products and different manipulations. We also present evidence for the mediating role of appearance self-discrepancy activation as a potential mechanism underlying the effect. The findings suggest that advertisements for attractiveness-relevant products may at times constitute social comparison standards, with which consumers compare themselves.
Taip pat rekomenduojame
1. Deshpande, R. and Stayman, D. M. (1994) A tale of two cities: Distinctiveness theory
2. and advertising effectiveness. Journal of Marketing Research, 31 (1) 57—64.
3. Forehand, M. R. and Deshpande, R. (2001) What We See Makes Us Who We Are: Priming Ethnic Self-Awareness and Advertising Response. Journal of Marketing Research, 38 (3) 336—348.
4. Luna, D. and Peracchio, L. A. (1999) What’s in a Bilingual’s mind?: How Bilingual Consumers Process Information. Advances in Consumer Research, 26, 306—311.
5. Luna, D. and Peracchio, L. A. (2001) Moderators of language Effects in Advertising to Bilinguals: A Psycholinguistic Approach. Journal of Consumer Research, 28, 284—295.
6. Luna, D. and Peracchio, L. A. (2002) “Where There Is a Will...”: Motivation as a Moderator of Language Processing by Bilingual Consumers. Psychology & Marketing, 19 (7—8) 573—593.
7. Luna, D., Peracchio, L. A., and De Juan M.D. (2003) The Impact of Language and Congruity on Persuasion in Multicultural E-Marketing. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13 (1/2) 41—50.
8. Luna, D. and Peracchio, L. A. (2005) Advertising to Bilingual Consumers: The Impact of Code-Switching on Persuasion. Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (4) 760—765.
9. MacKenzie, S. B., Lutz, R. J., and Belch, G. E. (1986) The Role of Attitude Toward the Ad as a Mediator of Advertising Effectiveness: A Test of Competing Explanations. Journal of Marketing Research, 23 (2) 130—143.
10. Maclnnis, D.J., Moorman, C., and Jaworski, B. J. (1991) Enhancing and Measuring Consumers' Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability to Process Brand Information from Ads. Journal of Marketing, 55 (4) 32—53.
11. Neese, W. T. and Taylor, R. D. (1994) Verbal Strategies for Indirect Comparative Advertising. Journal of Advertising Research, 34 (2) 56—69.
12. Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T., Schumann D. (1983) Central and Peripheral Routes to Advertising Effectiveness: The Moderating Role of Involvement
13. Journal of Consumer Research, 10 (2) 135—146.
14. Putrevu, S. and Lord, K. R. (1994) Comparative and noncomparative advertising: Attitudinal effects under cognitive and affective... Journal of Advertising, 23 (2) 77—90.
15. Whittler, Tommy E. (1991) The Effects of Actors' Race in Commercial Advertising: Review and Extension. Journal of Advertising, 20 (1) 54—60.
